DNA AND GENETICSMENDELIAN INHERITANCEVocabulary for Mendel and Inheritance Theory
Mendelian Inheritance: Discovered by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, in the 1800s.
- Traits - Distinguishing Characteristics that are inherited (example: Hair color)
- Genetics - The study of biological inheritance patterns and variation.
- Heredity - The passing of traits from parents to offspring.
- Hybrid - the offspring of two animals or plants that are different breeds, varieties, species, or genus. (produced through human manipulation for specific genetic characteristics.
- Dominant - the observed trait
- Recessive - the trait that disappeared.
- Phenotype - the way an organism looks and behaves.
- Genotype - The allele combination of an organism.
- Allele - Alternative forms of gene.
- Homozygous - a trait if its alleles for the traits are the same.
- Heterozygous - a trait if its two alleles for the traits are different from each other.
Mendelian Inheritance: Discovered by Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, in the 1800s.
- Discovered by doing experiments on Pea Plants and he deduced two Law's
- Law of Segregation: Every Individual possesses a pair of alleles for any traits, and each parent passes down the trait to the offspring
- Rule of Dominance: •Mendel called the observed trait dominant and the trait that disappeared recessive.
•Mendel concluded that the allele for tall plants is dominant to the allele for short plants. - Law of Independent Assortment
- Genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other.
Example: seed shape and seed color
MEIOSISOrganism that reproduce sexually is made of two different types of cells
GAMETES:
Male Gamete - Sperm, made in the Testes
Female Gamete - Ovum, produced in the Ovaries
FERTILIZATION
MEIOSIS PHASES:
Meiosis 1:
- Somatic cells - body cells have diploid cells and are skin, brain, muscle, skeleton.
- Gametes - sex cells and have the normal number of chromosome, Haploid.
GAMETES:
Male Gamete - Sperm, made in the Testes
Female Gamete - Ovum, produced in the Ovaries
FERTILIZATION
- The fusion of a sperm and egg during reproduction makes a zygote.
- 23 chromosomes in the egg, and 23 chromosomes from the sperm makes a 46 chromosome zygote.
MEIOSIS PHASES:
Meiosis 1:
- Interphase 1 - Chromosome replicates, and each duplicated chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids.
- Prophase 1 - Longest and most complex phase. Chromosome condenses, homologous chromosome form a tetrad. Crossing over occurs (segments of non-sister chromatids break and reattach to the other chromatid.
3. Metaphase 1 - Tetrads align on the metaphase plate
4. Anaphase 1 - Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards the poles. Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromeres.
5. Telophase 1 - cytokinesis with each haploid set of chromosomes in each pole.
MEIOSIS 2:
4. Anaphase 1 - Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards the poles. Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromeres.
5. Telophase 1 - cytokinesis with each haploid set of chromosomes in each pole.
MEIOSIS 2:
- No Interphase
- Prophase 2: Chromosomes get attached by spindle.
- Metaphase 2: chromosomes align at the equator of the cell.
- Anaphase 2: Sister chromatids separate.
- Telophase 2: Nuclei form and cytokinesis occurs.
PEDIGREE
INTERPRETING A PEDIGREE
CHART
Determine whether the disorder is dominant or recessive.
If the disorder is dominant, one of the parents must have the disorder.
If the disorder is recessive, neither parent has to have the disorder because they can be heterozygous.
- Pedigree is an ancestral line depicting lineage or descent of an individual.
- A diagram showing lineage of an individual, to analyze or follow a certain inheritance: Trait or disease.
- A pedigree can be used to determine the Mendelian inheritance of a genetic trait, especially familial diseases, across several generations.
INTERPRETING A PEDIGREE
CHART
Determine whether the disorder is dominant or recessive.
If the disorder is dominant, one of the parents must have the disorder.
If the disorder is recessive, neither parent has to have the disorder because they can be heterozygous.
DNA AND RNA
Differences between RNA and DNA
Phosphate group: the same in both.
Sugar: RNA has ribose, DNA has deoxyribose
Bases: The same except that RNA has Uracil instead Thymine.
Strand: DNA is double stranded and RNA is usually single stranded.
REPLICATION
1. Breaking the hydrogen bonds between the strand by HELICASE.
2. RNA PRIMER calls the RNA single binding protein to the DNA and keep it from bonding.
3. DNA POLYMERASE adds nucleotides to the DNA from 5' to 3' which leads to one strand as leading and the other strand as lagging strand. Leading strand will be continuously added, while lagging strand will be replicated parts by parts.
4. DNA LIGASE adds nucleotides to the part of the lagging strand that has gaps in it.
5. Mechanism of repair will edit the DNA to make sure the right nucleotides were added.
TRANSCRIPTION
Step 1: mRNA attaches to the ribosome.
Step 2: tRNA's attach to free amino acids in the cytoplasmic "pool" of amino acids.
Step 3: tRNA carries its specific amino acid to the ribosome.
Step 4: tRNA "delivers" its amino acid based on complementary pairing of a triplet code (anticodon) with the triplet code (codon) of the mRNA.
Step 5: Enzyme "hooks" the amino acid to the last one in the chain forming a peptide bond
Step 6: Protein chain continues to grow as each tRNA brings in its amino acid and adds it to the chain.
- DNA is a nuclei acid made up of nucleotides: Bases, phosphate group and sugar (deoxyribose)
- The four bases: Adenine - Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine
- DNA was discovered by many people, the main people are: Rosalind Franklin for the discovery that there are four bases and only certain bases pair up with each other. James Watson and Francis Crick created the 3D model of the DNA.
Differences between RNA and DNA
Phosphate group: the same in both.
Sugar: RNA has ribose, DNA has deoxyribose
Bases: The same except that RNA has Uracil instead Thymine.
Strand: DNA is double stranded and RNA is usually single stranded.
REPLICATION
1. Breaking the hydrogen bonds between the strand by HELICASE.
2. RNA PRIMER calls the RNA single binding protein to the DNA and keep it from bonding.
3. DNA POLYMERASE adds nucleotides to the DNA from 5' to 3' which leads to one strand as leading and the other strand as lagging strand. Leading strand will be continuously added, while lagging strand will be replicated parts by parts.
4. DNA LIGASE adds nucleotides to the part of the lagging strand that has gaps in it.
5. Mechanism of repair will edit the DNA to make sure the right nucleotides were added.
TRANSCRIPTION
- Transcription is the synthesis of an RNA strand from a DNA template.
- A gene's protein building instructions are transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA).
- mRNA carries the code from DNA to the ribosomes where translation into a protein occurs.
- Transcription occurs in three stages:
- 1. Initiation:
- RNA polymerase binds to DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides called the promoter.
- The promoter contains an initiation site where transcription of the gene begins.
- RNA polymerase than unwinds DNA at the beginning of the gene.
- 2.Elongation:
- Only one of the unmound DNA strands acts as a template for the RNA synthesis.
- RNA polymerase can only add nucleotids to the 3' end of the strand so like DNA, RNA must be synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction.
- Free ribonucleotides triphosphates from the cytoplasm are paired up with their commplementary base on the exposed DNA template.
- RNA polymerase joins the ribonucleoside triphosphates to form an mRNA strand.
- As RNA polymerase advances, the process continues.
- The DNA that has been transcribed, re-winds to form a double helix.
- Termination:
- RNA polymerase continues to elongate until it reaches the terminator, a specific sequence of nucleotides that signals the end of transcription.
- Transcription stops and mRNA polymerase and the new mRNA transcript are released from DNA.
- The DNA double helix reforms.
- The termination sequence usually consists of a series of adjancent adenines preceded by a nucleotide palindrome.
- This gives an RNA molecule that assumes a stem-and loop configuration.
- This configuration stops RNA polymerase from transcribing any further.
- 1. Initiation:
Step 1: mRNA attaches to the ribosome.
Step 2: tRNA's attach to free amino acids in the cytoplasmic "pool" of amino acids.
Step 3: tRNA carries its specific amino acid to the ribosome.
Step 4: tRNA "delivers" its amino acid based on complementary pairing of a triplet code (anticodon) with the triplet code (codon) of the mRNA.
Step 5: Enzyme "hooks" the amino acid to the last one in the chain forming a peptide bond
Step 6: Protein chain continues to grow as each tRNA brings in its amino acid and adds it to the chain.
HUMAN BODY SYSTEM
Nervous System
Nervous System
- Part of the human body that controls voluntary and involuntary movement.
- The nervous system is important because of a specific cell called a neuron.
- NEURON - special unit of the nervous system. It receives and transmit electrochemical pulses that will be spread throughout the whole body.
- Everything in the body is controlled by the nervous system.
- Parts of the nervous system: Brain, Spinal Chord, Nerves
Integumentary System
- Organ system that protects the body from all kids of damage
- The system includes: Skin, Hair, Nails
- Functions of the integumentary System: waterproof, cushion, protect the deeper tissue, excrete wastes (body odor, sweat), regulate temperature, sensory receptors (detect pain, sensation, temperature, and pressure)
- Organs: Sweat Gland, Epidermis Layer, Fingernails, Hair, Sebaceous Gland, Skin, Skin Cross-section, Toenail.
RESPIRATORY
- Respiratory system includes intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Air gets taken in, and taken into the lungs.
- Oxygen gets transferred to the red blood cells so it can be taken to every organ and the rest of the other organs in your body.
- Carbon Dioxide gets transferred to the lungs by the red blood cells, and humans exhale it.
- Organs in the Respiratory system: Nasal Cavity or Oral Cavity --> Pharynx --> Epiglottis --> Larynx --> Trachea --> Bronchus --> Lung --> Diaphragm
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- The circulatory system the organ system that leds the nutrients, blood full oxygen to travel to all the organs, and hormone.
- It is very closely related to the lungs and all the it reaches all the other systems in the human body.
- Arteries takes the blood full oxygen to all the organs in the body.
- Veins take the blood that doesn't have oxygen back to the heart so that i can get oxygenated again.
- Capillaries connect Arteries to Veins.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- The system that controls the hormone in one's body.
- This system controls everything in the body. From mood, to body functions such as metabolism, your heart rate, skin sensitivity, growth of the body, and your sleep cycle.
- Organs in the Endocrine organ system:
- Hypothalamus (Hormones that control growth development, Follicle simulation in uterus)
- Pituitary (Growth hormone, stimulating the thyroid, inhibit perception of pain, melanin synthesis for skin, simulates ovulation)
- Thyroid (energy consumption, metabolism, heart rate, mood)
- Parathyroid (control energy consumption)
- Thymus (Important in the immune system, it "educates" T-cells)
- Adrenal Glands (stress hormone and adreneline)
- Pancreas (Insulin and glucagon, controls blood sugar)
- Ovaries (estrogen and progesterone, testosterone; maintenance or the reproductive organs)
- Testes (growth of muscle mass, bone density, maturation of sex organs, deepening voice, growth of hair)
Muscle/Skeletal System
MUSCLE SYSTEM:
MUSCLE SYSTEM:
- Permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body.
- There are three different types of muscle:
- Skeletal Muscle (Muscle that is attached to the bones, that is voluntary moved by the brain. The brain and you make it move.)
- Cardiac or heart muscle (moves by itself and makes blood pump from chamber to the other chamber)
- Smooth Muscle (muscle that is moved unconsciously. They are found in the walls of internal organs, such as stomach, intestine, bladder, and blood vessel)
IMMUNE SYSTEM
- An organ system that protects the organism against diseases.
- Immune system attacks organisms and substances to keep people healthy. but if the immune system doesn't work then that can cause illness and infection.
- The immune system includes many cells, tissues, and organs that work well together.
- The CELLS that are involved in the immune system is white blood cells, which are called leukocytes.
- Leukocytes are produced and stored in many different places: thymus, spleen and bone marrow.
- Leukocytes seek out and destroy any foreign organism and substances.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Digestive system is when there is breakdown of food into smaller components so that it can be absorbed much easily into the blood stream.
- Steps of the Digestive System:
- Food enters the mouth.
- Saliva starts digestion by breaking down starch.
- Food the travels down the esophagus into the stomach.
- The gastric juices inside the stomach breaks down the protein.
- Small Intestines is where nutrients gets absorbed even further.
- Large Intestines break down more food and gets absorbed.
- The food that wasn't broken down and absorbed, will be going through the anus.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
- It is a system that removes excess and unnecessary molecules from the body.
- The system keeps the body in homeostasis and balanced.
- The waste will come out as urine, sweat, and exhalation.
- Organs of the Excretory System:
- Skin (sweat glands in the skin)
- Lungs (Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide)
- Kidney (Takes the waste from the blood stream and makes it into urine)
- Urinary Bladder (Collects the urine excreted by the kidney)
- Ureter (Takes the urine from the kidney and take it to the urinary bladder)
- Urethra (A tube that connects to the urinary bladder and it takes urine out of the body)
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- Reproductive system is a system of sexual organs that work together for reproduction.
- The organ system is different depending on whether the organism is female or male.
- The differences lead to a combination of genetic material to make an embryo and an offspring.
- The female reproductive organs include;
- Vagina
- Uterus
- Cervix
- Fallopian tube
- Ovaries
- Reproductive tract
- The egg gets released from the ovaries and awaits for the sperm in the fallopian tube. If the egg doesn't get fertilized then it will come out of the uterus and it would turn into menses. If the egg is fertilized then it will implant itself in the uterus.
- The male sex organs that form part of the human reproductive system.
- The sex organs are located outside the body
- The male reproductive organs include:
- Penis
- Scrotum
- Vas deferens
- Epididymis
- Prostrate glands
- Seminal Vesicle